Palestine Palestine is the name commonly used for the land that in ancient times was known as Canaan. When the Israelites first occupied Canaan, they met some of their strongest opposition from the Philistines, the people from whom Palestine takes its name (See Canaan; PHILISTIA). The natural boundaries of the land were the Mediterranean Sea in the west, the Jordan River in the east, the Lebanon Range in the north and the Sinai Desert in the south.
The main physical features of Palestine ran approximately north-south in more or less parallel lines. Bordering the Mediterranean Sea was a coastal plain rising into an area of low foothills called the Shephelah, which rose further into the broad central mountains. These mountains then fell away into a deep valley called the Arabah, through the northern section of which flowed the Jordan River. East of Jordan the land rose sharply, then opened on to an uneven tableland. (For Palestine’s vegetation, animal life, climate and agriculture See Animals; Birds; Farming; Flowers; Food; Trees; Weather.)
Coastal plain
Palestine’s coastal plain, from the Phoenician town of Tyre in the north to the Israelite town of Gaza in the south, was about 220 kilometres in length. In Phoenicia, where the Lebanon Range was close to the coast, the plain was very narrow (See Lebanon; Phoenicia), but south from Lebanon it gradually widened till interrupted by the Mt Carmel Range.
Extending inland from the Mt Carmel Range to Jezreel was the Plain of Esdraelon, through which flowed the Kishon River (Judges 5:21; Hosea 1:5). From Jezreel the plain led into the Valley of Jezreel, which extended east as far as the town of Bethshan near the Jordan River. Other towns of the region were Jokneam, Megiddo, Ibleam and Shunem (Joshua 17:11; 1 Samuel 28:4; 1 Kings 4:12). (For details of towns mentioned in this article See entries under the names of the towns.)
This whole area (i.e. the Plain of Esdraelon and the Valley of Jezreel) was sometimes referred to as the Valley of Jezreel and played an important part in Israel’s history. To the north of the valley was Mt Tabor, and to the south Mt Gilboa. Many of Israel’s battles were fought in this area, partly because the main north-south (Syria to Philistia) and east-west (Bethshan to Mt Carmel) roads passed through the valley. Megiddo, where the two roads crossed, also commanded the western entrance to the Plain of Esdraelon and consequently was of strategic importance to Israel (Judges 4:6; Judges 5:19-21; Judges 6:33; 1 Samuel 29:1; 1 Samuel 31:1,8,12; 2 Kings 9:16,27,30; 2 Kings 23:29; Zechariah 12:11).
Along the coast immediately to the south of Mt Carmel was the small Plain of Dor (Joshua 17:11; 1 Chronicles 7:29) and farther south the larger Plain of Sharon. Though much of Sharon was marshy, it had some pastoral and forestry lands. In Old Testament times it was fairly thinly populated (1 Chronicles 27:29; Song of Song of Solomon 2:1; Isaiah 35:2).
Because of sandy shores and shallow waters, there were no good sites for harbours south of Mt Carmel. A low headland enabled a small harbour to be built at Joppa, and in Old Testament times this was Israel’s only Mediterranean port. Other towns in the area were Ono and Lod (or Lydda) (2 Chronicles 2:16; Ezra 3:7; Nehemiah 11:35; Jonah 1:3; Acts 1:9-36,38; Acts 10:5-8). In New Testament times the magnificent city of Caesarea, built by Herod the Great and equipped with an artificial harbour, became the administrative centre and chief port of the Roman province of Judea (Acts 18:22; Acts 25:1-6).
From Joppa south to Gaza was the Plain of the Philistines, whose five main towns were Ekron, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Gaza and Gath. The plain and its lowland hills were good for farming, but became drier and less fertile towards the south. (For further details of this region See PHILISTIA.)
Shephelah
The low hill country between the narrow coastal plain and the high central range was called the Shephelah (Deuteronomy 1:7; Joshua 1:9-2; Joshua 10:40; Joshua 12:8; Jeremiah 17:26; Obad 19). It consisted of many hills and valleys, down which flowed swift mountain streams. This produced a fertile region that was suitable for growing sycamore trees and raising sheep and cattle (1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 9:27; 2 Chronicles 26:10).
Certain valleys in the Shephelah provided the only convenient routes from the coastal plain up to the central highlands, and consequently were the scene of many battles. The most important of these valleys was the Valley of Aijalon, where the main route from the coastal plain climbed up through Gezer and Beth-horon to the chief highland towns (Joshua 1:10-12; Joshua 16:3; 1 Kings 1:9-17; see ‘Central mountains’ below).
To the south of the Valley of Aijalon was the Valley of Elah leading up through Libnah (Joshua 1:10-31; 1 Samuel 17:2; 2 Kings 19:8), and slightly farther south another valley leading up through Lachish (2 Kings 1:18-17). Of lesser importance were the valleys of Sorek and Zephathah (Judges 16:4; 2 Chronicles 14:10).
Central mountains
Rising from the coastal plain/Shephelah on the west and the Jordan Valley/Arabah on the east were the central mountains of Palestine. For convenience they may be considered a single mountain range broken into two unequal sections.
The smaller northern section consisted mainly of the mountains of Galilee and was separated from the remaining section by the Plain of Esdraelon and its associated Valley of Jezreel. These hills and the adjacent plain and valley covered much of the tribal areas of Dan, Naphtali, Issachar, Zebulun and Asher (Joshua 20:7; Isaiah 9:1).
In the north of Galilee the mountains were higher than those in the south, more thickly forested and more thinly populated. In Old Testament times the chief city of the northern part was Hazor, originally a Canaanite stronghold but later one of Israel’s northern defence outposts (Judges 4:2; 1 Kings 9:15). Towards the south the mountains were more suited to farming. This south Galilean hill country was the region where Jesus grew up and where he spent most of the three and a half years of his public ministry. Some of the towns of the region were Nazareth, Cana and Nain (Matthew 21:11; Luke 2:39; Luke 4:16; Luke 7:11; John 1:2-11; John 4:46; John 21:2). (For other towns in Galilee see ‘Upper Jordan and Sea of Galilee’ below.)
Hills to the south of the Plain of Esdraelon marked the beginning of the long section of the range that stretched through central and southern Palestine. First were the hills of Samaria. These were not as high as those of north Galilee, the only prominent mountains being Mt Gerizim and Mt Ebal, which stood on opposite sides of the town of Shechem (Deuteronomy 1:27-13; Judges 9:7). Other important towns were Tirzah and Samaria. In the early days of the divided Israelite kingdom, Tirzah was the northern capital (1 Kings 14:17; 1 Kings 15:33; 1 Kings 16:6-8,15). Samaria was made the capital after Tirzah and remained so till the end of the northern kingdom. The city’s position on a hill overlooking the surrounding territory made it an excellent site for a capital (1 Kings 1:16-24; 1 Kings 20:1; 2 Kings 6:24; 2 Kings 17:5). North of Samaria was the small Plain of Dothan, which provided an alternative route from Jezreel to the coast (Genesis 37:17,28; 2 Kings 6:13).
Further south was the hill country of Ephraim, Benjamin and part of neighbouring Judah. This was a fertile forest region broken by steep valleys. These valleys proved to be good defences against attackers, particularly in the days after Joshua’s conquest when the Israelites were struggling to keep hold of their newly won territory (Joshua 1:17-18; Judges 5:14; Judges 7:24; Judges 12:15).
To the west the Valley of Aijalon led down from the towns of Beth-horon and Gezer through the Shephelah to the Philistine coastal plain (Joshua 1:10-12; Joshua 16:3,5; Joshua 18:13-14). Since this valley provided a main route from the coastal plain to Israel’s highlands, it was a frequent battlefield and became well fortified with Israelite defence outposts (1 Samuel 1:13-18; 1 Kings 1:9-17; 2 Chronicles 8:5; 2 Chronicles 11:10; 2 Chronicles 25:13; 2 Chronicles 28:18).
On the other side of the highlands another valley provided the way down to the east. The route went from Bethel through Ai and Michmash to Jericho on the broad plain of the Jordan Valley (Joshua 1:16-2; Joshua 18:11-13; 1 Samuel 1:13-5,23; 1 Samuel 14:1-5; Luke 10:30; Luke 19:1).
This part of the central highlands was one of the most thickly populated regions of Canaan. Some of its other well known towns were Shiloh, Mizpah, Ramah, Gibeon, Gibeah, Kiriath-jearim, Beth-shemesh, Emmaus, Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Bethany (Joshua 9:3,17; Joshua 18:25-28; 1 Samuel 6:12; 1 Samuel 7:15-17; 1 Samuel 14:1-3; 1 Samuel 17:12; Matthew 2:1; Mark 11:1; Luke 24:13).
To the south of this collection of towns the hills gradually flattened, the rainfall decreased, the land became less fertile and the population was more thinly spread. The chief town in this region was Hebron (Genesis 1:23-19; 2 Samuel 2:11; 2 Samuel 3:20; 2 Samuel 15:10). It was situated about half way between Jerusalem and Beersheba and was on the main route from Jerusalem to Egypt (Numbers 1:13-22).
Another route led west from Hebron through Lachish down to Ashkelon and Gaza on the main coastal route to Egypt. Because of their strategic positions, Hebron and Lachish were heavily fortified (2 Chronicles 1:11-12).
This barren region of southern Judah was the place to which David fled in escaping from Saul. Some of the places mentioned in the story are Adullam, Keilah, Ziph, En-gedi, Maon, Horesh and Ziklag (1 Samuel 22:1; 1 Samuel 23:13-15,25,29; 1 Samuel 24:1-2; 1 Samuel 25:1-2; 1 Samuel 27:6-10; for map See David). The central mountains had by now flattened into a broad tableland that stretched south into the Negeb.
Negeb
The Negeb is literally ‘the dry’, and was the name given to the dry southern part of Palestine between the Dead Sea and the Sinai Desert. Its approximate northern boundary ran from Gaza on the coast east to the Dead Sea. Its approximate southern boundary ran from Ezion-geber at the north-eastern tip of the Red Sea to the Brook of Egypt (Wadi El-Arish), which it followed to the coast. The chief towns of the Negeb were Beersheba in the north and Kadesh-barnea in the south. The Wilderness of Zin fell within the Negeb, and the Wildernesses of Shur and Paran bordered it to the west and south respectively (Genesis 20:1; Exodus 15:22; Numbers 10:12; Numbers 13:26; Numbers 20:1; Numbers 32:8; Numbers 33:35-37; Numbers 34:4).
In Old Testament times much of the Negeb was occupied by the tribe of Judah. The northern part attracted more people than the southern, because it was more suitable for grazing and farming. The Philistines continued to occupy much of the coastal plain, and other tribal groups occupied various areas at different times (Genesis 20:1; Genesis 26:1; Numbers 13:29; 1 Samuel 27:10; 1 Samuel 30:14). Water was always a problem in this dry region (Genesis 16:7; Genesis 26:17-23; Joshua 15:19).
Two main roads linked Egypt and Palestine. The ‘Way of the land of the Philistines’ went along the coast (Exodus 13:17), the ‘Way of the Wilderness of Shur’ went through the centre of the Negeb (Genesis 16:7). This latter route passed through the towns of Kadesh-barnea, Beersheba, Hebron, Jerusalem, Shiloh and Shechem, and was a well used route even as early as the time of Abraham (Genesis 20:1; Genesis 21:32; Genesis 37:14; Genesis 46:1). It may have been used by some of the twelve spies when they went north to spy out Canaan (Numbers 1:13-23), and was probably used by Joseph and Mary when they fled to Egypt to escape from Herod (Matthew 1:2-15).
This north-south road was crossed at Beersheba by a west-east road connecting Gaza on the coast with Edom inland. The section of the road that went east from Beersheba through the Valley of Salt and the Wilderness of Zin to Edom was known as the ‘Way of the Wilderness of Edom’ (2 Samuel 8:13; 2 Kings 3:8; 2 Kings 14:7).
Upper Jordan and Sea of Galilee
The Jordan River rose in the region of Mt Hermon in the Lebanon Range. From there it flowed south through a region that was quiet and isolated, till the tribe of Dan conquered the people and seized the territory for itself. In Old Testament times the town of Laish, which the Danites renamed Dan, became the northernmost town of Israel (Judges 1:18-29; 1 Samuel 3:20; 1 Kings 12:29). In the New Testament record the town of Caesarea Philippi, which was in the same locality, was the northernmost point that Jesus visited (Matthew 16:13).
South of Dan the Jordan flowed through a small lake, then into a second and larger lake known in the Old Testament as the Sea of Chinnereth and in the New Testament as the Sea (or Lake) of Galilee, the Lake of Gennesaret, and the Sea of Tiberias (Numbers 34:11; Matthew 15:29; Luke 5:1; John 6:1). The hills around the Sea of Galilee, particularly those to the north-west, provided Jesus with some quiet spots where he went to pray and teach his disciples (Matthew 5:1; Matthew 14:23; Matthew 15:29; Matthew 28:16).
The lake itself was 200 metres below sea level and contained plenty of fish (Matthew 4:18; Luke 1:5-9; John 1:21-8). The area around the lake was well populated and was the scene of much of Jesus’ public ministry. On the northern shore of the lake were two towns, each with a large Jewish population, Capernaum and Bethsaida. Capernaum seems to have been Jesus’ base for his northern ministry (Matthew 4:13; Mark 2:1; Mark 6:45; Mark 9:33; John 6:17). In the hills behind Capernaum was another town that Jesus visited, Chorazin (Matthew 1:11-23).
On the western shore of Lake Galilee were the largely Gentile towns of Magdala and Tiberias. Also bordering the lake to the west was the small Plain of Gennesaret (or Chinnereth) (Matthew 15:39; Mark 6:53; John 6:23).
To the east of the lake was the less populous district of Gadara, where the land rose steeply from the water’s edge and opened on to good farming country. The people of the district were mainly Gentiles, some of them pig farmers, and were known as Gadarenes (after the local district) or Gerasenes (after the larger district where Gadara was located) (Matthew 8:28,Matthew 8:30-32; Mark 5:1,Mark 5:11-13). Spreading out farther to the north and east was the rich pastoral land of Bashan. Two of its main towns were Golan and Edrei (Deuteronomy 32:14; Joshua 1:12-5; Joshua 21:27; Jeremiah 50:19; See Bashan).
Jordan Valley and Dead Sea
From the Sea of Galilee the Jordan flowed south through a deep valley till it entered the Dead Sea, 400 metres below sea level. The valley immediately south of the Sea of Galilee was fertile and good for farming, but further south it began to become desolate, till it was little better than a desert where the Jordan entered the Dead Sea (Mark 1:1-5,9).
For much of its length the river was difficult to cross, and so formed a good barrier against invasion from the east. There was thick jungle along the water’s edge on either side of the river, from where steep banks rose up to the floor of the main valley (Jeremiah 12:5; Jeremiah 49:19; Zechariah 11:3). These banks collapsed at times and damned the stream, which was probably what happened at the time of Israel’s crossing under Joshua (Joshua 1:3-17). Normally, people could cross the river only at certain places where there were natural fords (Joshua 2:7; Judges 3:28; Judges 7:24; Judges 12:5; 2 Samuel 19:15,18).
Between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea a number of streams fed the Jordan from the east, the most important of them being the Yarmuk and the Jabbok. Another, of lesser importance, was the Cherith (Deuteronomy 3:16; 1 Kings 17:3). Two towns of the region, Succoth and Penuel, were strategically located close to the Jordan and Jabbok Rivers. A ford crossed the Jordan nearby, and defence fortifications were built at Penuel (Genesis 32:22,31; Genesis 33:17; Judges 8:8,Judges 8:16-17; 1 Kings 12:25).
The region east of Jordan, particularly the central part, was commonly known as Gilead. In the time of Moses, Israel had taken the land from the Amorites, but the earlier occupants were the Ammonites (in the central region) and the Moabites (in the southern region). Their respective capitals were Rabbah and Heshbon (Numbers 1:21-26; Deuteronomy 3:11; Deuteronomy 4:46). The Israelites’ chief defence outpost on the eastern frontier was at Ramoth-gilead (2 Kings 8:28; 2 Kings 9:14). (For maps and other details See Ammon; Gilead; Moab.)
In the Jordan Valley and to the west of the river were the towns of Gilgal and Jericho (Joshua 4:19). Because of a natural spring of freshwater at Jericho, the town had the appearance of an oasis and was called the city of palm trees (Deuteronomy 34:3). Another natural product of the Jordan Valley was a special kind of clay that was used in making articles of bronze (1 Kings 7:46).
The Dead Sea was known also as the Salt Sea, because of the large amounts of salt and other chemicals in the water (Joshua 15:5; Joshua 18:19). No fish could live in it and no vegetation grew around its shores, except at places where fresh water entered from streams on the eastern side. There were no streams on the western side, but cultivation was possible at isolated points where there were freshwater springs, such as at En-gedi (Song of Song of Solomon 1:14).
It is believed that Sodom and Gomorrah were located near the southern end of the Dead Sea. Through earthquake activity the sea apparently spread further south, covering whatever may have remained of the ancient cities (Genesis 1:19-28).
Arabah
From the eastern side of the central highlands, the land fell away sharply into a deep valley that ran from the Sea of Chinnereth (Sea of Galilee) along the Jordan River to the Dead Sea, from where it continued south to Ezion-geber on the Gulf of Aqabah (the north-eastern arm of the Red Sea). The section north of the Dead Sea was commonly known as the Jordan Valley, and the section south as the Arabah.
Originally, arabah was a common Hebrew word meaning ‘burnt’ or ‘dried up’, and was used of dry or semi-desert wasteland. It was a fitting word to give as a name to the barren valley south of the Dead Sea (Deuteronomy 1:1; Deuteronomy 2:8).
The name Arabah was not restricted to this one region. On occasions the whole valley, both north and south of the Dead Sea, was called the Arabah. The Dead Sea was known as the Sea of the Arabah, and a small stream that entered the Jordan near its entrance to the Dead Sea was known as the Brook of the Arabah (Deuteronomy 3:17; Deuteronomy 4:48-49; Joshua 3:16; Joshua 11:2; Joshua 12:1-3; Amos 6:14). In the days of Israel’s expansion under Jeroboam II, the Sea of the Arabah marked Israel’s southern boundary (2 Kings 14:25).
An important road called the King’s Highway ran from Ezion-geber along the plateau on the eastern side of the Arabah through Edom, Moab and Ammon into Syria. The Israelites under Moses wanted to use this road on their journey to Canaan, but Edom and Moab refused permission, forcing the Israelites to make a lengthy and tiring detour around the borders (Numbers 1:20-21; Numbers 21:10-13,21; Judges 1:11-24).
The Arabah contained good quantities of iron and copper (Deuteronomy 8:9). Workers mined and smelted the minerals at various places along the valley, then transported them down the King’s Highway (the Arabah road; Deuteronomy 2:8) to a refinery at Ezion-geber, from where large ocean-going ships carried them east (cf. 1 Kings 1:9-28; 1 Kings 10:22).
Political divisions
For details of the history of Palestine and its political divisions in Old Testament times See Amorites; Canaan; Israel; Judah, Tribe and Kingdom; and articles under the names of the various Israelite tribes and towns. In New Testament times there were three commonly recognized regions in Palestine itself (northern, central and southern; See Galilee; SAMARIA; JudeA), and two in the former Israelite territory to the east of Jordan (northern and southern; See Decapolis; Perea).